Constructionist Learning Theories

When people think about generating and testing hypotheses, many might automatically think of how this idea applies to science. Generating and testing hypotheses, however, is something that can be done in any content area, and refers to students “engaging in complex mental processes, applying content knowledge like facts and vocabulary, and enhancing their overall understanding of the content” (Pitler et al., 2007). Meanwhile, constructionist theory suggests that students must have hands-on experience to understand new material and revolves around students creating a product. These activities, according to Pitler et al. (2007), include:

1. Systems analysis-Students study the parts of a system and predict what might happen if certain aspects were changed or removed.
2. Problem solving-Students examine possible solutions to a problem.
3. Historical investigation-Students brainstorm theories about historical events which remain open to interpretation and discussion.
4. Invention-Students develop a solution to satisfy a need.
5. Experimental inquiry-Students make observations, theorize about why something occurred, and participate in an experiment to test their hypothesis.
6. Decision making-Students develop possible answers or solutions, and analyze those solutions to determine which one is the best.

Each of these tasks which involve generating and testing hypotheses support the theory of constructionism by involving students in hands-on learning activities. Furthermore, technology allows teachers to develop engaging learning activities which reinforce the idea of generating and testing hypotheses. For example, there are webquests available for all subject areas. Some terrific history webquests pose questions, then require students to “investigate” and develop their own hypotheses about what happened, based on the facts collected during their internet investigation.

Many of these activities are ideal for partner or group work, which helps develop critical 21^st the century skills of collaboration and communication. And while some tasks do not necessitate technology use, technology can easily be incorporated in some way. As Orey (2001) stated, PowerPoint software is a tremendous tool that supports the theory of constructionism. Students can actively participate in learning by creating a PowerPoint presentation. This process can be tied to an activity which requires generating and testing hypotheses, such as problem solving. Students can examine possible solutions to a problem, and then present their possible solutions, along with explanations and multimedia, to their classmates in a PowerPoint presentation.

Constructionism encourages hands-on learning experiences for students. Constructionism “suggests that new ideas are most likely to be created when learners are actively engaged in building some type of external artifact that they can reflect upon and share with others” (Han & Bhattacharya, 2001). My experience with my students supports this—they are most excited about learning when they have the opportunity to actively participate and create a product. Therefore, I will continue to incorporate problem-based and project-based learning activities in my classroom.

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2009). Constructionist and constructivist learning theories. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology. Baltimore: Author.

Han, S., and Bhattacharya, K. (2001). Constructionism, Learning by Design, and Project Based Learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved November 24, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Technology Tools to Support Cognitivism

While behaviorism centers around the effects that outside influences have on learning, the cognitive learning theory focuses on the mental processes involved in learning information. Orey (2010) explained the information processing model as consisting of the receipt of information by the brain’s sensory registers, the movement of this information to short-term/working memory, and, if information is rehearsed enough, the retention of information in long-term memory. The dual coding hypothesis states that images (or even scents) are stored in the brain along with the word or concept itself. If we want our students to remember a concept, then it is beneficial to provide as many opportunities for connections to be made to that concept as possible.

As asserted by Pitler et al. (2007), “graphic representations serve as mnemonic devices that facilitate the classification, organization, storage, and recollection of information into and out of long-term memory.” There are many technologies available to help support cognition. Concept mapping has great potential to help students organize key information visually in an easily understandable manner. One particular example of concept mapping that I can use with my social studies students is a time-sequence pattern organizer. Microsoft Word has the option of using drawing tools to create such an organizer; my students can also search for clip art, insert it into their organizer, and explain the significance of each event included on it. I often have my students complete similar activities by hand, but using technology to complete the task will provide students with more options and easier access to information they can include a timeline. I can also have my students create cause and effect organizers using Microsoft Word. Cause and effect is a theme we discuss quite frequently. The visual component of a concept map would allow for greater understanding cause and effect relationships, and, consequently, better retention of information.

One of my favorite tools for making strong connections between my students and ancient history is a virtual field trip. Virtual field trips allow us to create episodic memories and rich experiences for our students (Laureate, 2010). These memories become part of a student’s network of connections relating to a particular topic, and help to serve as a basis for further learning about that topic. I incorporate virtual field trips as often as possible, and, just yesterday, took my class to visit the Great Wall of China. Since we had been learning about Ancient China for a couple of weeks and already discussed the Great Wall at length, visiting the Great Wall allowed students to make connections between what they saw and experienced and what they already knew. The discussions that took place as we “walked” along the Great Wall impressed me and showed me that students were able to recall information we had already discussed about the Great Wall of China. Now, when it comes time for them to tell me what they know about this topic, they will be more likely to recall the information discussed during our virtual field trip because they will have a strong episodic memory of it. Based on student feedback I have received, virtual field trips are one of the most effective tools we can use to engage our students in the learning process.

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010). Cogitive learning theory with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology. Baltimore: Author.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Behaviorism: How Does it Relate to Technology?

The theory of behaviorism emphasizes that behaviors and knowledge are acquired through reinforced responses to behaviors, both positive (rewards) and negative (punishments) (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008). Behaviorists believe that all behavior is a response to external incentives. When a person is given a reward, whether it is positive or negative, in correlation to a behavior, that behavior is likely to either be repeated or abandoned.

The instructional strategies of reinforcing effort and homework and practice both correlate to the core principles of behaviorism. Pitler et al. (2007) asserted that “reinforcing effort” enhances students’ understanding of the relationship between effort and achievement by addressing their attitudes and beliefs about learning.” Some students are intrinsically motivated; they consistently give their best effort. Many students, however, do not naturally understand the importance of effort, and therefore give little to no effort in relation to academics. In addition, they connect their lack of success with factors other than effort, such as a natural weakness in a particular subject area. Students can be taught the significance of effort, though, and technology provides teachers and students tools which easily illustrate the correlation between effort and success (Pitler et al., 2007).

One such tool is spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft Excel. The teacher can create a spreadsheet which allows students to track their effort. Categories addressed in the spreadsheet might include attention, participation, and homework completion. After assigning themselves scores in each area of the spreadsheet for a given week, they could then enter a test score for that particular week. At the end, they would see a correlation between their effort score and test score. If done on a weekly basis, however, this strategy would only work in classroom that gives weekly assessments. In my classroom, where assessments are not necessarily given weekly, this would not be a successful tool.  I could have students complete the spreadsheet after each chapter assessment, though. Another possibility for data collection is an online survey from a site such as Survey Monkey. Teachers can develop a survey based on an effort rubric, administer the survey, and analyze the results. These results can then be shared with students to emphasize the correlation between effort and achievement.

According to Pitler et al., (2007) the purpose of homework and practice is to “give students a chance to review and apply what they have learned.” Homework is meant to provide practice on a particular concept, and should reinforce desired skills. To be truly meaningful, teachers should provide feedback to students in a timely matter in order to address any mistakes students make while practicing a skill (Pitler et al., 2007). Technology can help make homework truly meaningful. One example that many might not automatically think of is Microsoft Word. Rather than using it simply as typing software, it can be used as a tool for research. Students can use Microsoft Word’s research tool to search for definitions and synonyms to provide support while completing an assignment.

Another tremendous benefit of technology is the ability to create multimedia products, since, as Pitler et al. (2007) explained, “multimedia homework is an opportunity to deepen understanding and gain proficiency.” One benefit that I have witnessed is the ability of multimedia technology to engage students and increase their excitement. In general, students enjoy utilizing technology to create multimedia presentations and are extremely creative in their use of technology. Finally, students can also use web technology for practice with important concepts. There are tremendous web resources available that reinforce content. One of my favorite web resources is BrainPOP, which includes movies on many of the social studies topics we study. Students enjoy viewing the videos, and have the option to take a quiz at the end to gauge their understanding of the topic. Homework does not mean using pencil and paper to complete a worksheet; there are so many possibilities that involve technology, yet still reinforce the content that students need to know. In the end, students not only practice concepts, but also become more proficient in 21^st century skills.

Resources

Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.